Theoretical Framework

When sharing your training, it is important to have a general understanding of the theoretical background.

For this purpose, we thought sharing summarized information with you would be appropriate.

More detailed explanations will be given to you in our Trainer Training program.

First, we will share brief information about the 'Cerebral Cortex' part of our brain. Subsequently, we will share information about the 'Information Processing Model', which has an important place in learning processes. After a while, videos about the 'Working Memory' theory which is extremely important and created by Dr. Alan Baddaley regarding working memory in the model will be uploaded to our platform.

Finally, PASS theory, which examines learning from a neuropsychological perspective, will be shared.

Brain Shell (Cerebral Cortex) Upper Brain

It is at the top of the brain. It is also known as the cerebral cortex. The thickness of this structure, which consists of brain cells and various connections, varies between 2-5 mm. It consists of an average of 14 billion cells. There are different neurons here according to their operations. The surface of the cortex is indented and protruding.

When flattened, it takes up as much space as a newspaper page. It contains more neurons (nerve cells) than any other structure of the brain. The cerebral cortex consists of neuron bodies and synaptic connections between them. Our ability to move consciously occurs through the cortex. This is where decisions are made, organized and experiences are placed in the mind. It is thanks to the cortex that we can speak and express our thoughts and feelings. It first collects and analyzes information, compares it with data stored in previous experiences, and makes a decision. Compared to the lower parts of the brain, the neocortex is the region richest in neural networks.

It consists of two hemispheres. These hemispheres are connected to each other by a thick bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. The most important function of the corpus callosum is to provide a continuous flow of information between the two hemispheres of the brain. The right part of the brain controls the actions of the left side of the body, and the left part manages the right side of the body. The two hemispheres of the brain specialize in different and specific tasks. The left side is also called the logic brain. It processes the transmitted information verbally, logically, mathematically, abstractly, linearly and in a certain order. The right part, also called the formal brain; It works by maintaining a non-verbal, intuitive, emotional, spatial and concrete, visual, holistic and general perspective.

Although both hemispheres of the brain have different tasks, they always work in cooperation. The corpus callosum, which is responsible for this communication, is very sensitive to stress. When we get stressed, problems occur in the flow of information. This is also called learning disabilities-blocks.

The cerebral cortex, which is the largest part of the brain, consists of both the left and right hemispheres, each of which has four lobes that have specific functions.

a-) Frontal Region b-) Parietal Region

c-) Temporal Region d-) Occipital region

1-) Frontal Lobe (Front Region of the Brain)

It is located in the front of the brain, behind our forehead. It constitutes one-third of the entire cerebral cortex area. With the work of the frontal area of ​​the brain; Mind, personality and emotional characteristics are formed in humans.

It is a means of synthesizing information from the outside world and regulating the behavior of the organism. A person with impaired frontal lobe functions lacks the ability to set goals and the motivation to follow a planned series of activities. Additionally, patients with frontal lobe damage experience deficiencies in judgment, insight, mental flexibility, abstract thinking, planning, sequencing and response speed.

The frontal lobes are considered the center of executive functions such as designing, abstract thinking, and self-control. The frontal lobe has many connections with the limbic system.

Features provided by the frontal region of the brain;

* Focusing and sustaining attention

*Directing attention

*Detailed thinking

*Planning, designing

*Short-term and working memory

*Judgement/reasoning

*Predicting the future

*Learning from mistakes

*Patience

*Understanding and expressing emotions

*Empathize

* Common Sense

*Reaction control

* Morale

*Being organized

* Motivation

* Solving problems

The frontal lobe is divided into 4 parts.

a-) Motor Cortex

b-) Prefrontal Cortex

c-) Broca's Area

d-) Anterior Cingulate Cortex

a-) Motor Cortex

It covers one-third of the frontal lobe. The motor area provides voluntary body movements.

-Control of hand and speech muscles

-Providing body movements

-Fine and gross motor movements: For example, writing or speaking

-Manual skills

-Controlling eye movements is managed by the motor cortex.

b-) Prefrontal Cortex (Front Part of the Frontal Lobe - Front Region of the Brain)

At the front of the frontal area is the prefrontal area, which controls attention, anxiety, and social relationships. The prefrontal cortex is our central executive organ. The last region to develop in terms of brain functioning properties is the frontal region. The prefrontal lobe continues to develop and receives information from all over the brain and gives feedback.

This region is defined as the "area of ​​consciousness, awareness and attention". It is responsible for reasoning, paying attention, and problem solving.

The key to the brain is the frontal area of ​​the brain. The codes of information entering and leaving the brain are decoded here and distributed to other regions. In vertebrates, the frontal region of the brain is the command center of the brain. The degree of development of the mind depends on the development level of the frontal region of the brain.

Prefrontal Lobe Features;

- Maintaining attention and concentration

- Patience

- Planning, designing

- Reaction control

- Being organized

- Self-control

- Solving problems

- Detailed thinking

- Learning from mistakes and experiences

- Making predictions about the future

- Qualified limbic system relationship

- Perceiving emotions and learning lessons

- Empathy

- Being prudent

The frontal area of ​​the brain controls other brain regions. This brain region is, in other words, the brain of the brain. The most important region in attention, learning and metacognitive functions is the prefrontal cortex area. That's why we'll take a closer look at this area.

Attention, concentration, processing of information, time management, judgement, planning, organization, behavioral control, detailed thinking and impulse control occur in this region.

One of the basic features of the frontal region of the brain is "attention". Attention is the feature used most intensively while awake. The prefrontal area allows controlling attention and making changes. If there is a problem, the individual will experience mental slowness, difficulty on focusing attention, and may be easily affected by distracting factors. The other feature along with attention is short-term memory or working memory. In order to concentrate on the task at hand and continue working, paying attention and working memory must be effective.

In case of concentration and attention, the frontal region of the brain closes itself off to other external stimuli and ensures continuity of attention. It concentrates on important emotions and thoughts and filters out unimportant ones. Stopping or continuing a thought or behavior, and judging whether it is beneficial to that person or not, occurs as a result of the intense relationships between the right- left - upper - lower - inner parts of the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala, hippocampus and cingulate gyrus.

The prefrontal cortex is the place where stimuli stored in internal-external, conscious-subconscious memory and from all other sources are organized, combined and transformed into behavior. The frontal region of the brain is like both the entrance and exit gate of the brain. When an external stimulus comes to the brain, information received from the five senses is collected in the frontal region of the brain. From here, it exchanges information with relevant units and reveals the appropriate reaction.

Some of the most intense connections of the prefrontal area occur with the amygdala, which is located in the inner part of the brain. Behind the amygdala is the hippocampus, which is involved in short-term memory retention and long-term memory recall. In addition, the evaluation of long-term memory records is also carried out in the prefrontal cortex.

In addition, the front region of the brain (prefrontal cortex) directly or indirectly affects the way the body works through the hypothalamus.

The prefrontal area is the most important controller and regulator of the limbic system. For this reason, sexuality, social relations, moral values, planning, solving complex problems, and being able to carry out multiple tasks in parallel are among the functions of this region. Additionally, the limbic system sends suppressive messages, allowing decisions to be made logically rather than based on emotions.

If there is a problem in the prefrontal area, children have difficulty following the object with their eyes. They have difficulty thinking abstractly. Mental rigidity and lack of willpower may occur. There are disruptions in social relationships. These may include difficulty in stopping unwanted behavior (hyperactivity) and lack of self-awareness.

In case of disruptions in the prefrontal area; Lack of attention, taking things slowly, difficulty making decisions, tension in social relationships, anxiety, apathy, irritability and inability to control impulsivity, slowing down of thoughts and inability to concentrate attention are observed. As a result of these losses, weakening of social skills, inability to maintain plans, and changes in emotional state may occur.

Long-term studies have shown that the frontal region of the brain is healthier in children who grow up following rules. In addition, motivation has the feature of stimulating the frontal region of the brain.

It is necessary to implement multifaceted intervention plans to improve the functions of this department, both in healthy individuals and individuals with attention deficit disorder (ADD) or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Finally, stress is one of the most important factors that negatively affects the prefrontal cortex. In many cases diagnosed with “attention deficit”, the main problem is emotional factors. At this point, parents have important duties. The first and most important of these is to offer the child a peaceful and positive family life.

c-) Broca's Area

It allows the production of speech sounds. It is a conversation area. 95% of the time it is located in the left hemisphere of the brain.

d-) Anterior Cingulate Cortex:

It connects planning with emotional state when one is ready to undertake an action. This is the section that becomes active when there is a situation that requires a solution.

LEARNING PROCESS - LEARNING AND REMEMBERING MECHANISM

Information Processing Model

Information processing theory has recently offered a more accepted model for understanding the learning process.

In information processing theory, answers to the following questions are generally sought: How do we receive new information from outside? How do we process the new information received in our brain? How is information stored in our brains for a long time? How do we retrieve and remember stored information?

Learning according to the information processing model: It can be defined as the process of making stimuli received from the environment meaningful, storing them in memory, remembering them for use and transforming them into behavior.

According to the information processing model, the formation of learning occurs in the following process;

- Stimulus is received from an external source through the senses.

- It is processed in short-term memory.

- Related information in long-term memory is brought back to working memory and integrated with new information, and in this way it is encoded and given meaning to the new information.

- Encoded information is stored in long-term memory.

There are three types of memory related to storing information in memory for a short or long time. Our memory system consists of filtering and eliminating the information coming from our senses in different layers. These are:

1-) Instant-Very Short Term Memory

2-) a- Short Term Memory b - Working Memory

3-) Long Term Memory

1-) Instant-Very Short Term Memory:

This type of memory is also called sensory recording. We perceive life through our five senses. Sight, hearing, touch, taste, smell. Vision and hearing are at the forefront in academic learning. In some specific cases, tasting and smelling may be involved. Information is stored in immediate memory for a very short time. If we do not attach importance to this information, if we do not have curiosity or interest, or if it cannot make an association with the connections that have already taken place in our basic brain program, it will fade away after a short time, that is, it will be forgotten. If we think about the information through attention and perception processes in this very short period of time, remember it, bring it to consciousness, or combine that information with previously recorded information in the memory by making associations, the information will be saved from disappearing. It settles in the brain by being recorded in long-term memory.

Stimuli from our environment come to sensory record through the sense organs. Although the capacity of the sensory record is very large, the retention time of information is very short. Some of this information is received through attention and perception processes and sent to short-term memory. Information coming from the visual senses is encoded just like a photograph, and information coming from the auditory senses is encoded as the same sound patterns for a very short time. This time varies between half a second and four seconds.

Very short-term memory serves as a filter for the information to be sent to short-term memory.

2- a) Short Term Memory

The place where stimuli pause in the mind for a short time is called short-term memory. Short-term memory is the entry point for learned information.

Short-term memory has two basic interrelated functions, so it is called both short-term memory and working memory.

Its first function is to temporarily store a limited amount of information within a limited period of time.

Adult short-term memory can store seven +- (7+-2) units (groups) of information, that is, the amount of information that can vary between 5 and 9 units. A three-year-old child can store 3 units of information, at the age of seven, 5 units, and at the age of ten and beyond, 5 to 9 units.

The second important function of short-term memory is to perform mental operations. Therefore, short-term memory is also called working memory or working memory. Since working memory is very important, we found it appropriate to explain it under a separate heading.

Short-term memory enables sensory information to be transformed into behavior or encoded into long-term memory. The duration of short-term memory to retain information varies between 2 seconds and 30 minutes. This memory operates when a stimulus is encountered, just before the record in question is transferred to long-term memory.

The information attended and perceived passes from very short-term memory to short-term memory. It includes both verbal and visual memories and determines the human learning capacity and basic state of alertness.

2- b) Working Memory

Working memory is one of the most important functions of the human brain. Working memory is where the components or goals of any activity are held long enough to complete that activity. It absorbs and retains the information coming from stimuli and combines it with the information we have learned before.

Working memory is a system in which information is kept for a short time, processed and changed during cognitive tasks such as comprehension, learning and reasoning, which are processed independently of short-term memory. Working memory is also responsible for problem solving, calculation and comprehension.

It sends this to all parts of the brain, allowing us to synthesize the old and new data we record through visual, auditory and instant memory. And then it allows us to extract the right information when we need it (exam times for students, etc.). If we explain working memory with a reading example; It is a system that allows the student to remember the first lines while reading the lines at the end of the page.

Working memory temporarily connects different points of memory. Working memory is where short-term memory and long-term memory work together. If a teacher asks a student something, that question enters working memory through short-term memory. The student must hold the question in working memory while retrieving information from long-term memory and reasoning to find an answer.

The regions that provide attention and concentration, problem-solving skills, planning, retention and recording of information, and therefore all functions of working memory, are the frontal lobes regulated through dopamine.

Working memory works better when it is peaceful. When you are anxious, sad or distracted, your mind may not have room for anything else in your working memory. If a child's mind is filled with different concerns, there won't be much room left for other academic components.

There is a direct relationship between the quality of attention and the functionality of working memory. The better the quality of attention, the wider and more functional the working memory.

3-) Long Term Memory (Memory)

Long-term memory is like a warehouse where our knowledge, skills and life experiences are stored, which is almost impossible to fill compared to a human lifespan.

Long-term memory occurs through structural change in the connections between neurons, that is, synapses. Synapses are either strengthened or new connections and new branches are formed with neighboring neurons.

It is the place where information is recorded, which we assimilate through working memory, keep in mind, process with other information. According to the latest neuroscience research, the capacity of long-term memory is around 2,500,000 GB. Compared to human life, we can say that the capacity of long-term memory is unlimited.

We can compare long-term memory to a library where arranged, organized information is stored ready to be used when necessary. It is assumed that this library has millions of entries that will enable accessing information, that is, remembering, and a network that will enable communication between each other.

This library has two basic sections;

1-) Episodic Memory

2-) Semantic Memory

1-) Episodic Memory:

Episodic memory is the compartment where our personal experiences are stored. The events we experience throughout our lives are stored here.

2-) Semantic Memory:

Semantic memory stores information in encoded and interconnected networks, both visually and verbally.

a-) Verbal (Auditory Memory):

Verbal memory is the ability to absorb and retain verbally presented information. It is used to decipher sounds, words, sentences and stories.

b-) Visual Memory:

This type of memory allows us to assimilate and keep in mind information such as faces, colors, shapes, designs, details about our environment, pictures and symbols. When learning new information, when the information is encoded both visually and verbally, remembering occurs more easily as it will be connected to each other with strong networks.

The most obvious of the problems with long-term memory; It is not that the information is lost, it is that it is lost in memory, that is, we cannot find where we put it. The solution to this is to record information in as organized a manner as possible.

One of the most important points about long-term memory; is the quality of the learning phase. The better a student keeps information in short-term memory with his/her attention and processes it through working memory, the more that information finds a place in long-term memory. And the remembering occurs with such high quality.

PASS THEORY

Neuropsychology is a branch of science that tries to explain the human mind and behavior based on brain behavior and cooperates with other disciplines such as neurology, physiological psychology, and neuroanatomy. Neuropsychology studies the relationships between the brain and mental functions and behaviors. The neuropsychological approach has great importance for understanding humans. It helps to test what is known about the mind based on the brain, and what is known about the brain based on the mind. Thus, complex cognitive processes become observable at the brain level.

PASS is a theory based on neuropsychological foundations. It was created based on data obtained by examining human behavior in a laboratory or classroom environment and studies carried out on the brain. It takes its name from the first letters of the English equivalents of the cognitive processes: Planning, Attention, Simultaneous and Successive.

According to PASS theory, intelligence consists of three components;

The first are attention-related functions that lead to focused perceptual activities. The second is information functions, which consist of two types (simultaneous and sequential). Thirdly; They are planning functions that enable attention control and directing oneself in achieving goals.

According to PASS theory, human cognitive activities consist of four important functions. These are planning, attention, and simultaneous and successive cognitive processes.

1-) Planning: Provides cognitive control.

2-) Attention: It refers to the use of cognitive processes to achieve the desired goal, being determined, self-control, and the ability to select the information we need and focus on it for a certain period.

3-) Simultaneous and successive cognitive operations: They refer to two separate forms of processing information.

The four PASS processes are mutually dependent. However, they have their own unique meanings. They are interrelated skills that function as a whole according to the requirements of the situation.

We can explain this situation by giving the reading function as an example.

In the first stage of reading, the child decides what to read. The child uses the "Planning" process to find the first page and decipher the words. While the reading process continues; It is necessary to focus on the text being read and ignore distractions. For this, the “Attention” process must be used. The child realizes the perception of the sentence as a whole through "Simultaneous Cognitive Processes". “Successive Cognitive Processes” are; it is used to decipher words and comprehend information based on the sequence and meaning of events. All PASS operations are necessary during reading, but their contribution varies depending on the situation. For example, when faced with an unknown word, the child may decide to analyze the word using planning. If this method does not work, one may try to consider words as a whole or group sounds (simultaneity). During the reading process, different processes can be used at different times to extract meaning from written words. Effective realization of functions occurs as a result of planning, attention, and the integration of simultaneous and successive processes with existing information.

The following pages provide more detailed explanations of these cognitive functions.

1-) PLANNING:

The cognitive process of planning is linked to the frontal lobe, which is unique to humans.

The information that a person acquires from his family from the moment he is born, and then from the social and cultural environment in which he lives, is called "basic knowledge". Planning enables a person to find an effective solution to a problem he/she encounters by making use of attention, and simultaneous and successive processes in conjunction with the basic knowledge he/she has acquired.

If we take a closer look at the planning;

Planning is a mental process by which an individual identifies, selects, implements, and evaluates solutions to problems. This process includes tools used to solve complex problems. In this respect, planning has a structure that includes Attention, Simultaneous, and Sequential cognitive processes. Planning is an action carried out within the framework of a purpose.

In other words, we can define planning as a series of different strategies and decisions that an individual adopts to solve a problem and achieve a goal. Through planning, the individual enables the individual to identify solutions to problems and implement them by using his/her attention, simultaneous and sequential operations, and knowledge.

Planning processes direct our behavior by blocking distracting stimuli and controlling disorder. Planning and Attention provides control of simultaneous and successive cognitive processes. In addition, planning and other cognitive processes interact. The cognitive function most closely related to planning is attention. As attention increases, planning increases, and as planning increases, attention increases.

In addition, two points distinguish the planning function from other cognitive processes. The first of these is the role of planning in problem-solving activities. When solving any problem, a person creates strategies, makes plans, and uses the decision-making mechanism. Secondly, if the front parts of the brain, especially the frontmost region, are damaged, planned behaviors are disrupted. Additionally, children with Hyperactivity and Attention Deficit show poor performance in planning activities.

With planning, future work is organized and recorded. Therefore, when we plan for the future, we also create our mental image of our future. Being planned means our brain finds the "proper path" to reach our mental image. The smooth road is the one that can take us to our mental image most shortly and easily. In other words, as a person designs himself in his brain, his brain produces behaviors in that direction. The plan guides people on how to implement their design.

There is a prior arrangement in any planning process.

Why Do We Plan?

1-) To achieve our goals as quickly and easily as possible.

2-) To increase the quality and efficiency of our work.

3-) To manage our time effectively.

As stated above, we make our plans to achieve various goals. “Inner speech” has a very important role in directing our direction and persevering toward the goal we have set. Inner speech; It is the best representative of the individual's internalized mental activities. Internalized mental activities begin to occur as the child becomes familiar with words and as his speech develops. Family, cultural values ​​, and social mediators are also important factors in the development of inner speech. After a certain period, internalized mental activities form inner speech, and the inner speech system forms the "internal code" system that allows people to regulate and control their behavior and enables the implementation of certain plans and programs. Thanks to the “internal code” system, a person can analyze a situation and program his behavior.

There is a close relationship between planning and problem-solving skills. Planning is the capacity to analyze and evaluate possible solutions to a new problem. The planning process is involved in all activities where it is necessary to use a method to solve a problem, whether in the classroom or in daily life. Planning is a process that requires the use and development of problem-solving strategies. The main requirement in planning is to determine how the problem will be solved.

The planning process also has an important place in academic success. For example, in a mathematical process, the better the individual's planning skills are, the more effectively he can decide how to complete the problem, focus on the problem to avoid making mistakes, remember the rules of mathematics, perform the operation with these rules, find the answer and evaluate whether the answer he finds is true or false. An individual child with good planning skills better evaluates and organizes the stimuli at the stages listed above.

Finally, effective planning activities determine the quality of strategic thinking skills that serve as a bridge to achieving successful results. With strategic thinking skills, the individual uses his resources more effectively. In this way, achieving success becomes easier.

2-) ATTENTION:  

Attention is one of the important processes that affect cognitive performance. Attention is the gateway to the process of learning information. Attention function is also connected to the frontal lobe, just like planning. The basic skill we need to solve all problems is attention.

Attention is the most important criterion in mental operations. It is necessary for all cognitive functions.

According to PASS theory, attention is a mental process that allows the individual to focus on a particular stimulus among many stimuli in a certain period.

Attention can generally be divided into two: voluntary and involuntary attention. Involuntary attention is the spontaneous entry of external and internal stimuli into the individual's field of perception, without any special effort by the person. A child studying while listening to a loud sound coming from the next room is an example of an external stimulus of involuntary attention, while the same child studying while daydreaming with different internal stimuli is an example of an internal stimulus of involuntary attention.

In voluntary attention, conscious perception is involved. The main feature of voluntary attention is the ability to focus attention on a single thing at a particular moment. Voluntary attention is also closely related to motivation. What we call the development of attention refers to the development of voluntary attention.

Attention helps us organize information in our brain to remember it when needed. Therefore, it is impossible to accumulate anything in memory without attention. For quality attention, external stimuli that are irrelevant to the subject must be prevented, internal negative tendencies must be mastered, the internal code system must be programmed (re-programmed when necessary) to motivate us and increase our interest, and then the ability to maintain and maintain attention must be acquired.

Components of Attention:

1-) Arousal: Arousal is a prerequisite for attention. Arousal and alertness; It is the state of the individual being alive, alert, ready to receive stimulation from the environment, and aware of himself. A certain amount of stimulation is required for learning to occur. However, high arousal leads to decreased attention. High arousal may be caused by substances such as caffeine, medication, or psychological conditions such as anxiety and stress.

The most optimal situation in learning; is a calm, receptive state of mind that is sufficiently stimulated.

2-) Continuity of Attention: It refers to the ability to continue paying attention for a while after paying attention to the phenomenon to be learned. During this period, it is necessary to block external and internal irrelevant stimuli. The most important factors affecting continuity in attention are motivation, stress, physical properties of the stimulus, habituation, and the physiological state of the person.

3-) Selective Attention: It is divided into two: focused and divided attention. Focused attention is the state in which an individual pays attention to a single source or information, completely excluding others. Divided attention is allocating attention to one or more stimuli or cognitive processes. Selective attention is a skill acquired through life habits and training. Trying to read a book in a noisy environment requires focused attention while listening to others while watching television in a room requires divided attention.

4-) Flexibility of Attention: It refers to the individual's ability to shift or divide his attention from one situation to another. Divisibility of attention means performing more than one cognitive process, as explained in the article selective attention.

3-) SIMULTANEOUS COGNITIVE PROCESSES:

Simultaneous cognitive processing refers to the acquisition of information in a holistic manner. It is the mental process by which an individual combines external stimuli into a single whole or group. Simultaneous processes refer to the grouping of stimuli, while sequential processes refer to the arrangement of stimuli in a certain order.

To better understand concurrent cognitive processes, we can give an example from the reading activity. To derive meaning from what you read, it is necessary to understand the relationship between the information presented. A reader who is good at simultaneous processing can simultaneously relate ideas in sentences to information in the story to get the overall picture. We integrate words to express an idea through simultaneous processes.

Spatial ability and thinking with visual images are important components in concurrent cognitive processing.

Spatial ability is some transformations that occur as a result of keeping shapes in mind and visualizing them in the mind. Examples of this type of skill include remembering the face of an acquaintance in daily life or finding directions on a map. Spatial thinking is the individual's ability to make mental manipulations on images of objects.

Imagination ability plays a role in simultaneous cognitive functions and academic domains. Visualizing information that students have processed verbally not only enables the information to be learned more permanently but also allows it to be remembered more easily at any time. In addition, if we can move 3D objects in our minds as we wish through visualization, we will be more successful in solving problems such as mathematics and science.

Thinking with visual images is called “Right Brain Hemisphere Activities”. Activities such as creating a mind map, drawing three-dimensional shapes, finding another shape hidden within a shape, and drawing a picture appropriate to the story being told can be given as examples of "Right Brain" activities. With the development of imagination ability, verbal information is encoded spatially for the second time. In this way, remembering becomes easier.

4-) SUCCESSIVE COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Successive cognitive processing is the mental process by which an individual combines stimuli to form a specific chain-like sequence. In successive cognitive processes, each piece is related only to what came before it.

The most important aspect of sequential cognitive processing is that stimuli are ordered. Sequential coding is needed for skilled movements such as writing. Decoding scripts involves a sequential analysis of letters, syllables, and words. For example, successive operations are used to understand the sentence "sister gave a pen to her brother" and to answer the question "who gave it to her?" The reason for this is the need to understand the order of the words in the sentence.

However, comprehension of what is read involves using, summarizing, and synthesizing text to understand written passages. This is more closely related to simultaneous transactions.

Successful readers have high proficiency in both simultaneous and successive cognitive processes.

A student who is successful in sequential operations is also successful in following the sequence required in problem-solving. Additionally, both simultaneous and sequential processes are needed to store and remember information.